Vol. 11 No. 5 (May 2001) pp. 210-215.

HANDBOOK OF YOUTH AND JUSTICE by Susan O. White (Editor). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001. 442 pp. Cloth $95.00. ISBN 0-306-46339-3.

Reviewed by Susan Gluck Mezey, Department of Political Science, Loyola University Chicago.

THE HANDBOOK OF YOUTH AND JUSTICE is a collection of original essays by scholars interested in assessing the state of the juvenile justice system. There are thirty-three contributors drawn from a wide variety of disciplines, including criminal justice, psychology, women's studies, sociology, human development, law, social work, psychiatry, and medicine. In a far ranging analysis of topics relating to children and justice, the book is divided into seven sections, with twenty-one chapters in all; it integrates youth and justice issues into a broad framework that encompasses the juvenile justice, criminal justice, and civil justice systems.

The volume brings together diverse approaches of law and social science, with many of the chapters containing statistical analyses. There is a wide array of topics, including the effects of environmental factors, the family, gender, and race on delinquency. Other subjects include victimization, violence, pornography, child abuse and neglect, and gang membership, to name several. Most chapters contain lengthy literature reviews, as well as data from published and unpublished sources and various forms of policy analysis. Because of the formidable task of attempting to treat this book as a single entity, this review will provide brief summaries of the chapters to allow the reader to appreciate the depth and breadth of this ambitious effort.

An introductory chapter by editor Susan White begins with a cautionary note about the inherent problems for researchers and scholars in the juvenile justice area. There is the difficulty of obtaining accurate statistics, with data that does not derive from standard measures or definitions. Differences in attitudes toward offenders lead to variations in reporting, underscored by the fact that some events and behaviors are not reported at all or public officials may manipulate reports for political purposes. Moreover, conceptually, there is often no uniform understanding of what constitutes gang activity or abuse, and more broadly, how to define victimization when discussing children's experiences.

The next chapter by Finkelhor, Paschall, and Hashima argues that more attention needs to be paid to the subject of children as victims, in contrast the more typical research focus on children as offenders. These authors, reminding us that children's interaction with law enforcement agencies in the role of victim is just as important as their interaction in the role of offender, specify five contexts in which juvenile victims appear in the justice system. In addition to drawing attention to this neglected area of research activity, the authors also emphasize that there is a relationship between children as victims and children as offenders; not surprisingly, maltreated children are more likely to grow up to become violent, or at least become

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involved with the justice system in some way. The authors stress the lack of available data and analysis and call for further research on child victimization in the justice system.

Widom's chapter on child abuse seeks to offer directions for future research on child maltreatment, within the context of the connection between child maltreatment and delinquency. The author lists six areas in which research is critically needed: the relationship between child maltreatment and gender or race and ethnicity; the role of criminal sanctions; the role of the justice system in processing and handling child maltreatment cases; attention on neglect as a form of maltreatment; the effects on children of witnessing violence; and the effects of intervention in abuse and neglect situations.

Finkelhor and Hashima's chapter on victimization reiterates the point made in their earlier chapter that victimization is an understudied phenomenon. The authors attribute this to the absence of a conceptual framework as well as available data. Special problems in studying victimization arise from imprecise definitions and overlapping categories. The chapter cites the need to understand such issues as how child victimization differs from adult victimization, why child victimization is so common, and why relatives are frequently the cause of child maltreatment.

The chapter on child pornography by Linz and Imrich answers questions about definitions of pornography, its production, its harm to children, and the response of the legal system. The chapter distinguishes between pedophiles and child molesters and discusses how each plays a role in the child pornography industry. The chapter calls for more research, particularly with respect to issues concerning the distribution of child pornography, its potential harm, and the relationship between child molestation and exposure to pornography.

A chapter on violent death by Fox et al. discusses the role of demographics in the analysis of crime rates. The demographic approach derives from the theory that certain segments of the population (defined by on age and race) have a higher crime rate, especially with respect to homicides. The theory explains that when the segment of society with a high propensity to commit crimes decreases as a proportion of society, crime rates go down. The authors end by warning against complacency because of the current decrease in youth crime rates, suggesting that the pattern could reverse itself without societal efforts to maintain the lower youth crime rate.

Chesney-Lind's chapter on girls, violence, and delinquency argues that girls have been largely invisible in analyses of crime even though they comprised almost 25 percent of the arrests in 1994, primarily as status offenders. She looks at changes in female delinquent behavior over the last ten years and compares it with male behavior. The author believes that one of the reasons for the increase in the rate of female delinquency is that status offenses have been relabeled as violent offenses. This also explains why there has been an increase in the rate of incarceration of female offenders. To understand the causes and effects of delinquency among girls, it is necessary to consider how sexual abuse, pregnancy, motherhood, and depression structure their lives in ways that set them apart from boys.

The examination of alcohol, youth, and the justice system by Martin discusses the fact that alcoholism has received little analysis as a criminal justice issue despite its effect on criminal behavior. Although the

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findings are mixed, alcoholism seems to be associated with violence and property crimes, especially among men; the author argues that reducing alcoholism will lead to lower delinquency and crime rates. He also shows that laws against driving while intoxicated have succeeded in diminishing the negative effects of drinking.

The section on cross-cultural patterns of delinquency contains a chapter by Finckenauer comparing experiences of delinquency in Russia and the United States and one by Barberet on youth crime in Western Europe. These authors are concerned about problems of definition and data collection in making statements about cross-cultural patterns, yet are enthusiastic about the benefits of engaging in such research.

The chapter on the relationship between the family and crime by McCord assesses three explanations for the transmission of criminal behavior: genetic transmission, physical and socioeconomic context, and child rearing practice. Although readily dismissing the view that criminality is transmitted through the genes, McCord argues that reputable studies, such as those based on the adoption of twins, indicate that genetic factors are related to crime in some fashion. Additionally, the transmission of crime is partially explained by the physical and socioeconomic environment in which the child is raised, with studies showing that parental education and occupations as well as geographic location are related to criminal activity. Child rearing practices also influence rates of delinquency among families; although these data are likely to be less reliable because they are based on self-reporting, studies suggest that values, family ties, and methods of discipline are important in understanding how the family affects criminal behavior.

The relationship between gangs, called youth collectivities, and violence is discussed in the chapter by Short. He points to the difficulty of defining a "gang," stressing that gangs change characteristics and behavior over time. Although the author reinforces the popular view that most gang activity is related to aggression, he also notes that, with few exceptions, violent behavior is relatively rare and not universally engaged in by all gang members. Moreover, most episodes of violence take place within the gang, rather than among gangs or between members of the gang and the non-gang world. Even though most members of gangs are socialized into violent activity early in life, he reports that there is little evidence of pathology among individual gang members, especially considering the conditions in which they live. Overall, he concludes that virtually all gang members display characteristics typical of marginalized youth.

Bursik's chapter on community stresses the importance of the neighborhood on children's development and adds that most research in this area includes analysis of the effects of race and ethnicity within neighborhoods. Early research on the effects of neighborhood on delinquency rates dates back to a 1921 study of Chicago neighborhoods that found that delinquency rates remained constant over time despite changes in race and ethnicity. Although criticizing as outdated the "social disorganization" theory that held that high delinquency rates resulted from poverty and a rapid turnover of ethnic groups, the author admits that there is no agreement on its replacement; other possibilities though include "systemic approach to delinquency" and the "social capital model." The author

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concludes by noting that knowledge of the relationship between delinquency and neighborhood effects are still largely unknown.

Following the chapter on neighborhoods is a chapter on segregation and youth violence by Peterson, Krivo, and Velez. These authors point to two theories to explain the relationship among urbanism, race, and youth violence: "ascriptive inequality" and "social isolation." The first, referring to economic inequality based on ascriptive characteristics such as race or ethnicity, leads to violence because of the need to displace aggressive feelings. The second, the concentration of disadvantage in a community, also leads to increases in violence. Although both theories seek to show a link between higher instances of violent crime in predominantly black urban neighborhoods, the author suggests that there is inadequate data to support either theory.

Thornberry and Krohn's chapter on the development of delinquency assesses models to explain the paradox that most antisocial adults were antisocial as children and yet most antisocial children outgrow this behavior and avoid later involvement in crime. The author focuses on an interactional theory to explain continuity and change in antisocial behavior and stresses that the relationship between age and antisocial behavior is a complex one. He suggests an approach that examines social structure as well as individual development.

Editor Susan White's chapter on reasoning and justice critiques the two major theories, "cognitive developmental" and "differential association," used to explain how children develop the capacity to reason about moral problems. She proposes a third, "social process," theory to explain the relationship between youth and justice. This theory is derived from a model based on the process of reasoning to a conclusion about questions of justice. The chapter illustrates the use of anecdotes in studying how a college student audience utilizes moral reasoning to determine the guilt or innocence of the actors in the stories.

In the chapter on children's memories by Ceci et al., the authors examine the commonly-held belief that children are highly suggestible and therefore unreliable as witnesses. Not surprisingly, they cite evidence that indicates that this is a simplistic view with a more complex reality. They argue that it is important to learn the circumstances, based on interviewer and interview methods, under which children's testimony is likely to appear reliable and convincing to a jury.

Singer's chapter on the juvenile court and juvenile justice looks beyond to the juvenile court to the broader juvenile justice system. The author identifies two perspectives on juvenile justice: "ideology," focusing on rehabilitation, and "organizational convenience," in which justice is sacrificed to the interests of the state. Singer notes the cyclical nature of the justice system as being driven alternatively by the desire to impose punishment and the desire to rehabilitate and/or treat the offender.

An essential element of juvenile justice is the diversion principle, reflecting different perspectives on juvenile offenders. "Soft-end" diversion occurs when the youthful offender is diverted out of the system, perhaps into mediation or counseling, thus essentially ending the juvenile's relationship with the justice system. "Hard-end" diversion, which has

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become an increasingly popular approach to youthful offenders, involves transferring the juvenile into the criminal justice system, where, for the most part, the youth is treated as an adult. Singer explains that these two are interrelated and work in conjunction in determining crime and punishment for juveniles. In the end, he calls for a greater awareness of the complexity of the juvenile justice system and a more realistic awareness of its operation.

Gelles's piece on family preservation and the "reasonable efforts doctrine" discusses the pendulum between child safety and family preservation that guides the activities of child welfare agencies. Reviewing the last several decades of child welfare policy, he shows the rising tide of foster care placements caused by society's increasing sensitivity to parental child abuse and neglect. In an attempt to rationalize individual state foster care systems, Congress enacted the 1980 Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act which formalized the "reasonable efforts doctrine," encouraging state child welfare agencies to keep families together when possible to reduce the number of children committed to foster care. Gelles argues that state agencies interpreted the doctrine as a mandate to keep families together whenever possible. Despite known risks to their safety, agencies now often refuse to remove children from home or send them home prematurely after removal. He ends by urging more study of the outcome of family preservation efforts as well as a more nuanced approach to child welfare theory and practices.

The chapter on children's rights by Woodhouse begins by conceptualizing children's rights as divided into two overlapping categories: "needs-based rights" and "capacity-based rights." The former is based on children's dependent and vulnerable status and includes the right to safety, nutrition, education, and shelter and the like; the latter includes the right to dignity and a claim to increasing autonomy of decision making with increasing maturity. Simply identifying these needs is not sufficient though. The difficulty arises over the question of who is responsible for ensuring that the needs are met. Woodhouse argues that parents, children, and the state must all play a role in this endeavor to varying degrees, depending, in part, on their abilities.

The chapter assesses legal and historical doctrines governing the relationship among children, parents, and the state, in particular looking at the role of the Supreme Court in determining the balance among their often competing interests. It concludes by citing five principles relevant to the debate over children's rights: equality, individualism, empowerment, protection, and privacy; these principles, Woodhouse argues, are interrelated and must be carefully balanced in children's lives.

The last chapter on child custody by Krauss and Sales surveys two decades of research, focusing on society's positive and negative reactions to the use of the "best interests of the child standard" (BICS) in determining custody following divorce. BICS, as the authors point out, was adopted to replace the PARENTAL FAMILLUS approach in which children were considered the legal property of their fathers. Because BICS is increasingly under attack, they believe it is important to assess its merits. After discussing the history of child custody standards, the authors conclude that BICS should be replaced by a standard originally proposed by Robert Mnookin in 1975, the "least detrimental alternative standard" (LDAS). The authors pay particular

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attention to the role of mental health professionals in child custody disputes, concluding that their role is often problematic, especially under the vague BICS.

Taken as a whole, this volume achieves its stated purpose of bringing together interdisciplinary approaches to the study of youth and justice. Although some chapters are written more engagingly than others and some will be more interesting to some readers than others (for example, I found the chapters on pornography, gangs, and children's rights, to name a few, especially interesting), almost all contain substantial literature reviews, as well as data from published and unpublished sources, and thoughtful analyses of the issues under discussion. Recognizing the need for further study and clarification of issues and ideas, almost all contributors either explicitly or implicitly urge further research into the areas under investigation. As the editor notes, one of the explicit purposes of the volume was to "encourage further research." These authors have produced chapters that will increase the likelihood of more work in the field of youth and justice.

I have two mild reservations about the book. First, although the book as a whole fulfills the goal of assessing youth and justice from an interdisciplinary perspective, it is less clear that the individual chapters themselves consistently do so. Second, the editor indicates that "most of the authors designed their research in light of public policy issues and appl[ied] their findings accordingly." However, for the most part, although policy questions were raised, an explicit focus on the formulation and implementation of public policy at the local, state, or national level was lacking in these chapters. A final note, while this is certainly a book that belongs in a university library, its cost makes it prohibitive for many individuals and virtually all students.


Copyright 2001 by the author, Susan Gluck Mezey.